| How English Works, 2/E | ||||||||
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Anne Curzan, University of Michigan - Ann Arbor Publisher: Longman
Our Price: £40.99 |
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Description This accessible introduction to the structure of English, general theories in linguistics, and important issues in sociolinguistics, is the first text written specifically for English and Education majors.
This engaging introductory language/linguistics textbook provides more extensive coverage of issues of particular interest to English majors and future English instructors. It invites all students to connect academic linguistics to the everyday use of the English language around them. The book’s approach taps students’ natural curiosity about the English language. Through exercises and discussion questions about ongoing changes in English, How English Works asks students to become active participants in the construction of linguistic knowledge. |
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Table Of Contents Detailed Contents Inside Front Cover Consonant Phonemes of English, Vowel Phonemes of English, Phonetic Alphabet for American English Inside Back Cover Brief Timeline for the History of the English Language List of Symbols, Linguistic Conventions, and Common Abbreviations xx Preface to Instructors xxiii Letter to Students xxviii
Chapter 1 A Language like English 1 The Story of Aks 2 Language, Language Everywhere 4 The Power of Language 4 Name Calling 5 Judging by Ear 5 A Question to Discuss: What Makes Us Hear an Accent? 6 The System of Language 7 Arbitrariness and Systematicity 8 A Scholar to Know:Ferdinand de Saussure (1857—1913) 9 Creativity 10 Grammar 10 Linguistics 11 Human Language versus Animal Communication 12 Birds and Bees 13 Chimps and Bonobos 14 Distinctive Characteristics of Human Language 18 The Process of Language Change 19 Language Genealogies 20 A Question to Discuss: Do Languages Have Families? 22 Mechanics of Language Change 23 Progress or Decay? 23 Attitudes about Language Change 24 Special Focus: Evolution of Human Language 25 Summary 28 Suggested Reading 29 Exercises 29
Chapter 2 Language and Authority 33 Who Is in Control? 34 Language Academies 34 Language Mavens 35 Defining Standard English 36 Descriptive versus Prescriptive Grammar Rules 38 Case Study One: Double Negatives 39 Case Study Two: Ain’t 40 Case Study Three: Who and Whom 40 The Status of Prescriptive Rules 41 Spoken versus Written Language 42 A Question to Discuss: Which Is More Permanent, the Written or Spoken Word? 43 Language and Society: Are We Losing Our Memories? 45 Dictionaries of English 45 The Earliest Dictionaries of English 46 The Beginnings of Modern Lexicography 46 Historical Lexicography 47 American Lexicography 48 A Question to Discuss: Should Dictionaries Ever Prescribe? 50 English Grammar, Usage, and Style 51 The Earliest Usage Books 51 Prescriptive versus Descriptive Tendencies in Grammars of English 52 Modern Approaches to English Usage 53 Special Focus: Corpus Linguistics 55 Origins of Corpus Linguistics 55 Corpus Linguistics in the Twenty-first Century 57 Summary 59 Suggested Reading 60 Exercises 61
Chapter 3 64 Phonetics and Phonology 65 The Anatomy of Speech 67 The International Phonetic Alphabet 69 English Consonants 70 Stops 71 Fricatives 72 Language Change at Work: Is /h/ Disappearing from English? 73 Affricates 73 A Question to Discuss: Does English Have Initial /Z/? 73 Language Change at Work: Who Drops Their g’s? 74 Nasals 74 Liquids and Glides 74 Syllabic Consonants 74 English Vowels 75 Front Vowels 77 Back Vowels 77 Central Vowels 77 Language Change at Work: The cot/caught and pin/pen Mergers 78 Diphthongs 79 Natural Classes 79 Phonemes and Allophones 80 Sample Allophones 81 Minimal Pairs 82 Phonological Rules 83 Assimilation 83 Deletion 83 Insertion 84 Metathesis 84 Language Change at Work: Is larynx Undergoing Metathesis? 85 Syllables and Phonotactic Constraints 85 Perception of Sound 86 Special Focus: History of English Spelling 89 Should English Spelling Be Reformed? 91 Summary 92 Suggested Reading 92 Exercises 93
Chapter 4 English Morphology 101 Morphology 102 Open and Closed Classes of Morphemes 103</H1> A Question to Discuss: Exceptions to the Closedness of Closed Classes? 106= Bound and Free Morphemes 107 Language Change at Work: Bound Morphemes Becoming Free 108 Inflectional and Derivational Bound Morphemes 108 Inflectional Morphemes 108 Derivational Morphemes 109 Language Change at Work: The Origins of Inflectional Morphemes 110 Affixes and Combining Forms 110 Morphology Trees 111 A Question to Discuss: What about Complex Words That Seem to Have Only One Morpheme? 113 Ways of Forming English Words 113 Combining 113 Shortening 115 A Question to Discuss: Is It Clipping or Backformation? 116 Blending 116 Language Change at Work: Alice in Wonderland and the Portmanteau 116 Shifting 117 Language Change at Work: Success Rates for New Words 117 Re-analysis, Eggcorns, and folk Etymology Reduplication Frequency of Different Word-Formation Processes 118 Borrowing and the Multicultural Vocabulary of English 119 A Question to Discuss: What’s Wrong with amorality? 121 Special Focus: Slang and Creativity 122 Summary 124 Suggested Reading 124 Exercises 124
Chapter 5 English Syntax: The Grammar of Words 129 Syntax and Lexical Categories 130 Open-Class Lexical Categories 132 Nouns 132 Adjectives 134 Language Change at Work: Is It fish or fishes, oxen or oxes 135 A Question to Discuss: Am I Good or Well? 136 Verbs 137 A Question to Discuss: Did I Lie Down or Lay Down? 143 Adverbs 145 A Question to Discuss: If I Do Badly, Why Don’t I Run Fastly? 146 Closed-Class Lexical Categories 146 Prepositions 147 A Question to Discuss: What Is the up in call up? 148 Conjunctions 148 Pronouns 149 Complementizers 150 Language Change at Work: Himself, Hisself, Hisownself 151 Determiners 151 Auxiliary Verbs 152 Challenges to Categorization 154 The Suffix -ing 154 Noun Modifiers 155 A Question to Discuss: What Can Phonology Reveal about Modifying -ing Forms? 155 Yes and No 156 Special Focus: Descriptive Syntax and Prescriptive Rules 156 Hopefully 157 Split Infinitive 157 Sentence-Final Prepositions 158 Its/It’s 158 Singular Generic “They" 159 Summary 160 Suggested Reading 160 Exercises 161
Chapter 6 English Syntax: Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences 166 Generative Grammar 167 Universal Grammar 168 A Scholar to Know: Noam Chomsky (1928— ) 169 Constituents and Hierarchies 170 Constituent Hierarchies 171 Clauses and Sentences 172 Constituency Tests 173 Phrase Structure Rules 174 Form and Function clause types Basic Phrase Structure Trees 176 Complex Phrase Structure Trees 181 Subordinate Adverbial Clauses 181 Relative Clauses 182 Language Change at Work: Which Is It, Which or That?184 Complementizer Clauses 185 Reduced Subordinate Clauses 186 Infinitive Phrases 186 Gerund and Participial Phrases 187 Tense and Auxiliaries 188 A Question to Discuss: What Is the It in “It Is Raining”? 189 Transformations 190 Wh-Questions 190 Negation 191 Yes-No Questions 191 Tag Questions 192 Passive Constructions 192 A Question to Discuss: How Did This Passive Sentence Get Constructed? 193 Relative Pronoun Deletion 193 Phrasal Verb Particle Movement 193 Does Generative Grammar Succeed? 194 Special Focus: Syntax and Prescriptive Grammar 196 Sentence Fragments and Run-on Sentences 197 Colons, Semicolons, and Comma Splices 197 Dangling Participles 198 Summary 200 Suggested Reading 200 Exercises 201
Chapter 7 Semantics 207 Semantics 208 The Limits of Reference 209 The Role of Cognition 210 The Role of Linguistic Context 210 A Question to Discuss: How Do Function Words Mean? 211 The Role of Physical and Cultural Context 211 Language Change at Work: The Formation of Idioms 212 A Brief History of Theories of Reference 212 Deixis 213 Plato and Forms 213 Repairing Plato 214 From Reference to Discourse 215 From Reference to Translation 215 Componential Analysis Lexical Fields 216 Hyponym to Homonym (and Other Nyms) 218 Hyponymy 218 Meronymy 219 Synonymy 219 Antonymy 220 A Question to Discuss: Does the Thesaurus Have a Bad Name? 221 Homonymy 221 Organization of the Mental Lexicon Prototype Semantics 224 Lexical Prototype Semantics 225 Analogical Mapping 225 Conceptual Metaphor 226 The Intersection of Semantics and Syntax 232 Projection Rules 232 Thematic Roles 232 How Sentences Mean 233 Sentences and Context SentenHo Processes of Semantic Change 226 Generalization and Specialization 227 Metaphorical Extension 229 Euphemism and Dysphemism 230 Pejoration and Amelioration 231 Linguistic Relativity 234 Special Focus: Politically Correct Language 236 Summary 238 Suggested Reading 239 Exercises 239
Chapter 8 Spoken Discourse 242 Discourse Analysis 243 Speech Act Theory: Accomplishing Things with Words 244 Scholars to Know: J. L. Austin (1911—1960) and John Searle (1932— ) 245 Components of Speech Acts 245 Direct and Indirect Speech Acts 246 Performative Speech Acts 248 Evaluating Speech Act Theory The Cooperative Principle: Successfully Exchanging Information 249 Conversational Maxims 250 Conversational Implicature 251 A Question to Discuss: Entailment and Implicature 251 Relevance 253 Politeness and Face: Negotiating Relationships in Speaking 255 Positive and Negative Politeness and Face 255 Face-Threatening Acts 256 A Question: A Question to Discuss: How Do Compliments Work? A Scholar to Know: Robin Tolmach Lakoff (1942-) Discourse Markers: Signaling Discourse Organization and Authority 258 Function of Discourse Markers 258 Language Change at Work: from Beowulf to Dude Types of Discourse Markers 259 Language Change at Work: Like, I Was Like, What Is Going On With the Word Like? 260 Conversation Analysis: Taking Turns and the Conversational Floor 261 Structure of Conversation 262 Turn-Taking 263 Turn-Taking Violations 264 Maintenance and Repair 265 Style Shifting: Negotiating Social Meaning 266 Indexical Meaning 266 Style and Creativity 266 Special Focus: Do Men and Women Speak Differently? 269 Early Language and Gender Research 270 Different Models for Gender Difference 271 Queer Sociolinguistics 272 Language and Identity 273 Summary 273 Suggested Reading 274 Exercises 274
Chapter 9 Stylistics 281 Stylistics 285 Systematicity and Choice 285 The World of Texts: Genres and Registers 286 Variation among Text Types 289 Which Comes First? 290 Textual Unity: Cohesion 290 Elements of Cohesion 292 Cohesion at Work Telling Stories: The Structure of Narratives 296 The Components of a Narrative 296 Investigating Speakers and Perspective 299 Varieties of Perspective 299 Speech: Direct and Indirect 300 Investigating Actions 301 Role of Action in Narrative 301 Action in Narrative 303 Attitudes in Action 304 Investigating Word Choice 305 Diction 305 Metaphor 306 Language Variation at Work: Literary Forensics 307 Modality Rhythm and Rhyme in Poetry 307 Poeticity and Its Axes 308 A Scholar to Know: Roman Jakobson (1896—1982) 309 Meter, Rhythm, and Scansion 310 Prosody and Verse Structure 310 Sound, Meaning, and Poetic Technique 311 A Question to Discuss: What Makes the Tongue Twist? 312 Language Change at Work: Hip Hop Rhymes 313 Special Focus: What Makes “Good Writing”? 314 Summary 315 Suggested Reading 316 Exercises 316
Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 320 Theories about Children’s Language Acquisition 321 Imitation versus Instinct 322 Noam Chomsky and Universal Grammar 323 Debates about Language “Hard Wiring” 323 Language and the Brain 324 Children Learning Sounds 326 Language Acquisition Tests 327 Acquisition of Phonemic Differences 328 Children Learning Words 329 Babbling and First Words 329 Language Acquisition at Work: Imitating Faces 330 Language Acquisition at Work: Deaf Children Learning ASL 332 Acquisition of Words and Word Meaning 334 Language and Society: What Causes “The Terrible Twos”? 335 A Question to Discuss: Why Do We Talk with Our Hands? Children Learning Grammar 335 Patterns of Children’s Errors 335 Acquisition of Complex Grammatical Constructions 337 The Role of Parents in Language Acquisition 338 Features of Parentese 339 Role of Parentese 340 Language Acquisition in Special Circumstances 340 Pidgins and Creoles 341 Nicaraguan Sign Language 342 Critical Age Hypothesis 343 Critical Periods 343 A Case Study: Genie 344 Acquisition of Languages Later in Life 345 When Things Go Wrong 345 Broca’s Aphasia 346 Wernicke’s Aphasia 347 Dyslexia 348 Language Variation at Work: Verbal Slips Special Focus: Children and Bilingualism 350 Children Learning Two Languages 350 Bilingual Education Programs 350 Summary 352 Suggested Reading 352 Exercises 353
Chapter 11 Language Variation 356 Dialect 357 Dialects versus Languages 358 A Question to Discuss: Is American English a Dialect or a Language? 359 Standard and Nonstandard Dialects 359 Dialectology 360 Language Change at Work: Pop versus Soda 363 Variationist Sociolinguistics 364 William Labov’s Research 365 A Scholar to Know: William Labov (1927— ) 366 Sociolinguistics versus Generative Grammar 366 Speech Communities and Communities of Practice 367 Variationist Sociolinguistic Methodologies 367 Sampling 368 Soliciting Language 369 Analyzing Results 369 Ethical Issues 371 A Question to Discuss: Should We Preserve Dialects? 373 Major Factors in Language Variation within Speech Communities 373 Age 373 Gender 374 Class 375 Race and Ethnicity 378 Social Networks 378 Effects of Language Contact 380 Dialect Contact 380 Language Contact 380 Pidgins and Creoles 381 Speaker Attitudes and Language Variation 383 A Question to Discuss: What Does “Linguistic Equality” Mean? 385 Special Focus: Code-switching 386 Summary 388 Suggested Reading 389 Exercises 389
Chapter 12 American Dialects 392 The Politics of American Dialects 393 Speakers Who Control Multiple Dialects 394 Judgments and Humor about Dialects 394 Dialect Diversity and National Unity 395 Language Change at Work: The Inconsistency of Language Attitudes 396 Regional Variation 397 A Sample Walk 397 Language Change at Work: Why Does Unless Mean in case’in Pennsylvania? 399 Defining Regions 400 The Emergence of Regional Dialects 401 Retention 402 Naturally Occurring Internal Language Change 402 Language Change at Work: Regional Food Terms 403 Language Contact 403 Language Change at Work: A Dragonfly by Any Other Name 404 Coining 405 Social Factors 405 The History of Regional Dialects in the United States 406 The Beginnings of American English 406 The Northern Dialect Region 407 The Southern Dialect Region 408 The Midland Dialect Region 409 The Western Dialect Region 409 Dialects within Dialect Regions 410 Two Case Studies of Regional Variation 412 Appalachian English Phonological Features 412 Morphological and Syntactic Features 414 Lexical Features 416 Language Change at Work: Jack, Will, and Jenny in the Swamp 416 California English Phonological Features Lexical Features Syntax and Discourse Features Social Variation 417 Slang and Jargon versus Dialects 417 Social Dialects 418 Two Case Studies of Social Variation 418 Chicano English Phonological Features Lexical Features African American English Historical Origins 419 Phonological Features 420 Morphological and Syntactic Features 420 Lexical Features 421 Special Focus: The Ebonics Controversy 422 Summary 431 Suggested Reading 431 Exercises 432
Chapter 13 History of English: Old to Early Modern English 435 Old English (449—1066): History of Its Speakers 436 When Did English Begin? 436 Which Germanic Dialect Is “Old English”? 437 Language Change at Work: How English Was Written Down 439 Where Do the Names English and EnglandOriginate? 440 Old English Lexicon 440 Latin Borrowing 441 Old Norse Borrowing 443 Native English Word Formation 443 Old English Grammar 444 The Origins of Modern English Noun Inflections 444 The Gender of Things 445 The Familiarity of Personal Pronouns 445 The Many Faces of Modifiers 446 The Origins of Some Modern English Irregular Verbs 447 Variation in Word Order 448 Middle English (1066—1476): History of Its Speakers 449 The Norman Conquest 449 A Scholar to Know: J. R. R. Tolkien the Philologist 450 The Renewal of English 450 The Emergence of a Standard 451 Middle English Dialects 452 The Middle English Lexicon 454 French Borrowing 454 Latin Borrowing 455 Other Borrowing 455 Word Formation Processes 456 Middle English Grammar 456 The Loss of Inflections and Its Effects 457 The Inflections That Survive 457 Early Modern English (1476—1776): History of Its Speakers 458 The Printing Press 458 Attitudes about English 459 The Study of English 461 A Question to Discuss: How Do We Preserve the Evidence Early Modern English Lexicon 463 Greek and Latin Borrowing 464 Romance Borrowing 464 Semantic Change in the Native Lexicon 464 Affixation 465 Early Modern English Grammar 466 Older Grammatical Retentions 466 Developments in Morphosyntax 466 Language Change at Work: The Invention of pea 467 The Fate of Final-e 467 Language Change at Work: The Great Vowel Shift 468 Looking Ahead 468 Suggested Reading 469 Exercises 470
Chapter 14 History of English: Modern and Future English 477 Modern English (1776—Present): Social Forces at Work 478 Prescription and the Standard Variety 478 The Media 479 Imperialism 480 Globalization 481 Language Change at Work: The Debated Origins of O.K. 482 Modern English: Language Change in Progress 483 Word Formation 483 Lexical Borrowing 484 Phonological Changes 485 Grammatical Changes 486 A Question to Discuss: “Hey, You Guys, Is This Grammaticalization?” 487 The Status of English in the United States 487 Language Variation at Work: The Myth of the “German Vote” in 1776 489 A Question to Discuss: Official State Languages 491 The Status of English around the World 492 The Meaning of a “Global Language” 493 English as a Global Language 494 World Englishes 496 The Future of English as a Global Language 498 What Happens after Modern English? 499 English and the Internet 500 Language Change at Work: Retronymy and Reduplication Suggested Readings 505 Exercises 506 Glossary 509 Bibliography 533 Credits 545 Index 547
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Features
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New To This Edition New, updated examples have been included throughout the text, from new words to current debates about language (e.g., censorship of taboo words in the media, language evolution, grammar questions on the SAT). New extended descriptions of two additional American dialects in Chapter 12: California English and Chicano English. More efficient and contrastive treatment of word classes in Chapter 5, which results in a resource that will prove useful to students/future teachers throughout their careers. A clearer explanation of the relationship of simple and complex sentences in Chapter 6, to equip students to understand the wide array of sentences they encounter. Fuller integration of syntax, semantics, and discourse in Chapters 6, 7, and 8 makes for a richer explanation of linguistic meaning. New and revised supplemental boxes, including Questions to Discuss and Language Change, Acquisition, and Variation at Work, focus student attention on interesting language problems and help students engage actively with the English language all around them. The inclusion of new material on current language pundits (Chapter 2), discourse markers (Chapter 8), verbal slips (Chapter 10), and language learning in isolation (Chapter 10). More accessible examples of code-switching in Chapter 11, as well as more detailed explanations of pidgins and creoles. Updated statistics on the effects of the Internet on English, as well as more detailed examples of World Englishes. New Scholar to Know boxes on Robin Tolmach Lakoff and Geneva Smitherman.
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Appropriate Courses HE0301 Introduction to Linguistics |
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Instructor Supplements Instructor's Manual for How English Works, 2/E Curzan & Adams © 2009 | Longman | Paper;158 pages | Instock - Instructor only resource ISBN-10: 0205616364 | ISBN-13: 9780205616367 |